Angels We Have Heard on High

ANGELS WE HAVE HEARD ON HIGH:

The Making of the Castrati in 17th and 18th Century Italy

BY: Lindsey Roll

"They sing like nightingales, they make you lose your balance and take your breath away." -Raguenet

Around 1550, music, both in the churches and in the more secular spheres (that is to say the theaters and the private stages) was developed into a rich new style that demanded virtuosity. The Baroque Era, as this period is now called, was a time of superficiality and flamboyant display. The birth of Johann Sebastian Bach in 1685 effectively marks the definitive point by which music with complex harmonies and multi-voice scores prevailed. In dramatic contrast with the very simple, low-ranged tonal poems and chants used largely in religious ceremonies, the music of the Baroque required voices that were not only capable of singing notes much higher than before, but also much faster, and in complex harmonies. In the past, male falsetti and young boys had done the job, but to little satisfaction, for the falsetti still had a limited range, and the sound produced was far inferior to that of a true soprano—that is to say, a woman. Young boys were acceptable, but also flighty, and had to be dismissed as soon as they reached puberty. Unfortunately, for women to sing these parts was unimaginable, according to a decree upheld by each successive Pope, and based on the text of Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians 14:34,

As in all the churches of the holy ones,
women should keep silent in the churches,
for they are not allowed to speak, but should be subordinate,
as even the law says.

The answer to the problem was thus complex, and it came in the form of the eunuch, the great castrato. Although the Roman Catholic Church absolutely forbid the practice of human castration, promising death to its perpetrators and immediate excommunication to its accomplices (namely the parents of the unfortunate young lad), they willingly cast a blind eye upon those boys castrated “by accident,” who entered into their choirs. Admitted usually under the pretense of some falsified excuse for having been castrated (a favorite was the ill-placed bite by wild pigs, or falling from a horse), the castrati could not have been better suited to their job. Able to sing the highest pats, with the agility of a woman's voice, while retaining a youthful brilliance, young castrati became indispensable to the schools of Naples which, in the 18th century had become the most prominent and well-respected in all of Europe. (Barbier 46)

However, the practical reasons explaining the use of the castrato throughout the Papal States does not sufficiently explain why pre-pubescent boys were castrated in the first place. Almost invariably, these castrated children were a product of the destitute—families either too poor to provide for their beloved children, or parents so vulgar that they would bind their sons forever to a life of music, in the vain hope that he would be the next most illustrious castrato, and a wise investment. By the 18th century, little boys were being castrated at an alarming rate, one estimate as high as 4,000 a year (Brook 7) as a result of their impoverished situations, and thus assigned at a very early age to life in the church, or, for a very lucky few, to the opera.

Although the actual true success of the castrati was sharply limited by the relatively infinitesimal number of well-paid professional posts, most children were victims of avaricious parents who had heard of the riches and glory achieved on the operatic stage or in the service of a monarch. According to Dr. Charles Burney, who made several inquiries on the subject of castrati while in Italy, young boys were taken by the dozen to the conservatories to be "tried as to the probability of voice, and then are taken home by their parents for this barbarous purpose." (Burney 247) The actual castration had to be done with much secrecy, for even the Italians were ashamed of the practice. Burney recorded becoming frustrated when he was unable to draw upon the Italians to pinpoint the major centers of the operation,

I inquired throughout Italy at what place boys were chiefly qualified for singing by castration, but could get no certain intelligence. I was told at Milan that it was at Venice; at Venice, that it was at Bologna; but at Bologna the fact was denied and I was referred to Florence; from Florence to Rome, and from Rome, I was sent to Naples. The operation most certainly is against the law in all these places, as well as against nature; and all the Italians are so much ashamed of it, that in every province they transfer it to some other. (Burney 247)

Once the castration had been accomplished, one of two types of deals may have profited the parents by the sale of their son. First, they may have offered him to a conservatory, most likely in Naples, where he would humbly beg and petition, and probably be admitted, free of charge, but bound to remain there for six to ten years. Perhaps there was a cash payment, or another sort of favorable deal as an expression of the conservatory's gratitude to have the boy. A second method might be to sell their young son outright to a master teacher, who would then train his young prodigy and later expect a cut of his earnings. Historian Angus Heriot took a dim view of these transactions, remarking that "it was the accepted thing to sell any male potentially fine voice into such musical slavery, much as the poor of industrial England sold their children to be sent down the mines or to become chimney sweeps." (Heriot 38).

Four major institutions in Naples took the responsibility of most of the young eunuchs, who usually entered at approximately eight years old. Having been converted from orphanages in the early 17th century, these four conservatories, Sant’Onofrio, La Pietà, Santa Maria di Loreto, and Poveri de Gesù Cristo took most of the poor young boys free of charge and bound them to service until their late teens. Studies were rigorous, and were carried out by some of the most prominent musicians of the era, replacing the priests and other religious from the orphanage days. However, life at the conservatories left much to be desired; the institutions hung forever in a dangerous financial balance, and sleeping quarters and meal provisions were meager at best. There is, however, evidence that the precious young eunuchs were treated with more care than the regular students were. French Scholar Patrick Barbier observed that, "it is well known, for example that at Sant'Onofrio, at certain periods, richer food was served to the young castrati, especially broths, eggs and chicken. This was a kind of luxury compared to the severely rationed diet of the other students." (Barbier 44) Demanding schedules were also placed upon the boys, including at least six hours a day of vocal training as well as music theory, composition, and generally an auxiliary keyboard instrument, most often harpsichord. Days began early, and were long. According to school schedules, the boys were awakened at 6:30 a.m. in the winter (4:45 a.m. in the summer), and were then obliged to sing while dressing and making their beds. (Barbier 41) The figlioli (as the children of the conservatory were called) were also an important source of income for the conservatorio, for wages they received for performances around the community were paid directly to the conservatorio itself. The youngest castrati especially were an important part of this revenue, as they were traditionally chosen to dress up as angels and preside over the coffins of dead children. Given the high infant mortality rate in Italy at the time, such engagements were surely quite frequent.

A castrato graduated from the conservatory by passing a series of exams that culminated in his début performance. For him, the focal points of the daily lesson were centered around expanding lung capacity. Early castration resulted in a very round ribcage, often measuring the same from side to side as it did from front to back. With such rich lung capacity, a castrato such as the celebrated Farinelli, perhaps the greatest of all time, might be able to sustain a note for the duration of a minute! Several exercises in vocal agility, trilling and ornamentation made sure that the castrato voice would stay dependable, and explains its ability to supercede the musicality of most of the prima donnas of the time. When this training had been completed, the figlioli were ready to make their public début as a professional and pursue his future career. Some were released early when they were realized to have incredible potential. Nevertheless, such results were rare. Of most cases, Sylvia Mamy, an expert on the castrati of 17th and 18th century Naples, concluded "Lorsque le jeune chanteur atteint l'age de seize ou dix-sept ans, il sort du conservatoire et essaie de trouver un emploi dans les théâtres ou des églises (As soon as the young singer reached the age of 16 or 17 years, he left the conservatory and tried to find work in the theatres or the churches.) (Mamy 425) Those who had studied with a private instructor were released at the discretion of their mentor, but often kept contact with him. Some who studied in this manner were heard as early as twelve, as was the great Nicolino! (Barbier 26)

After leaving the conservatory, a young man had to find work, either in one of the papal choirs, or perhaps, on the stage. Very few castrati actually realized their dreams (or maybe, those of their parents) of wealth and success. He who may have managed to amass even minor wealth in his lifetime was sometimes distrustful of his parents. One story goes that Mustafà, a famous singer in the Papal Chapel, "threatened to kill his father if he were to learn he had been castrated for no valid medical reason but simply to make him into a singer." (Barbier 159). Similarly, court records from Naples show that some castrati even sued their parents when they became too much to afford, and too demanding.

In the opera house, castrati were invaluable, by the mid 17th century, an estimated 70 percent of all the males in opera had been thus assaulted. Of the total number castrated, however, not more than just a handful would achieve the success they had hoped for. If he made it to the theatre, a castrato may have been subject to the torment and ridicule of the public, and perhaps even his colleagues. Remarkably, a few composers did write for the castrato voice in opera, namely George Fredrick Handel, and Claudio Monteverdi. Even Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart included a part for a castrato in his serious opera, Idomeneo. When a castrato character was written into an opera as a permanent and original member of the opera's cast, that is to say, not added later by another, his personage was generally that of the hero. The castrati seem to have had an almost magical effect on people, perhaps because of their sexual ambiguity, and a certain element of fascination. They themselves were considered to be "half-godlike, half-human beings," and often took the traditional roles, famous Greek and Roman heroes from the great ancient dramas. (Barbier 103) Critics, however, felt that the use of a castrated male to portray such immortal heroes only served to make a serious opera ridiculous.

Even when such a role had not been initially written into the opera, castrati were able to participate. In Rome, women were not allowed to participate on stage (those who did were often slandered, and were considered to be licentious prostitutes) until near the end of the era of the castrato (early to mid 18th century), and eunuchs were sometimes enlisted to fill these voids. (Heriot 23) Sometimes, a castrato would make a command performance, in which he would insert an aria of his choice into the opera at random. These arias were called arie di baule or "suitcase arias" because one could carry the music in one's suitcase while travelling from opera to opera. (Barbier 97) The entrance of the castrato into the opera and the aria itself may well have been out of place, but the castrato himself was a guaranteed hit. One famous and temperamental castrato by the name of Luigi Marchesi, demanded that in every single opera - no matter which - he enter at the top of a hill donning a sword and a plumed helmet required to be "at least six feet high, begin by saying 'Where am I?'" and after a loud blast of the horns, crying 'Hear the sound of the war-like trumpets!'" (Barbier 113)

Those who became famous earned about the same salary that the most celebrated prima donnas, the leading ladies of opera all over Europe. Opera house records show that, for one season, the castrato Senesino received 3,693 ducats, fully 460 times the salary of the copyist, who was paid 8 ducats for that same season. (Barbier 114) In addition to large salaries, castrati were sometimes rewarded with expensive gifts if they had won the favor of a European monarch. Napoleon himself caused a great stir when the voice of Girolamo Crescentini touched him so that he awarded its possessor the Crown of Lombardy. Such prestige is usually reserved only for the most accomplished military officers! According to Historian Patrick Barbier, the award caused so much commotion that after the evening was over, a friend of the castrato heard complaints about his honor, to which she replied, "alas, you forget his wound!" (Barbier 127)

Some eunuchs chose a still more stable career in the service of a monarch. Every royal court in Italy had a castrato in their possession, and the salary was guaranteed for the year, whereas opera was not a year-round commitment. Several members of the European royalty had a great affinity for the crystalline nature of the castrato voice. Queen Christina of Sweden was said to be particularly fond of castrati, once ordering a true between Sweden and Poland in order that she might have the talents of a castrato in service there. Ferri, the castrato, was dispatched from Poland, and peace was called, tentatively. (Barbier 129) The appeal of the castrato voice continued to entrance the public in the Baroque, for its man-made, light and superficial sound. A contemporary observer described the castrato voice vividly, saying, "their voices have always something dry and harsh, quite different from the youthful softness of women; but they are brilliant, light, full of sparkle, very loud, and with a very wide range." (Heriot 14) The castrati, by their very nature, represented a mystery, a monster, a man-made perfection that dazzled Baroque listeners with their bravura and virtuosity. Although their voices are long gone, their temporary place in the bizarre scope of music history remains yet shrouded by time and mystery. And the young men, sacrificed to art, leave to us only, that before the end of the Baroque and the acceptance of the female upon the stage, they sang like angels.

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REFERENCES
Barbier, Patrick. The World of the Castrati: The History of an Extraordinary Operatic Phenomenon. Trans. Margaret Crosland. Suffolk: Souvenir Press, 1996.
Brook, Stephen, ed. Opera: a Penguin Anthology. London: Penguin Books, 1996.
Burney, Charles. The Present State of Music in France and Italy. Printed 1773. Adapted to: An 18th century Musical Tour in France and Italy. Ed. Percy A. Scholes. London: Oxford University Press, 1959.
Groover, David and C. C. Conner. Skeletons from the Opera Closet: an Irreverent Appreciation. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.
Grout, Donald Jay. A Short History of Opera. New York: Columbia University Press, 1947.
Heriot, Angus. The Castrati in Opera. London: Da Capo Press, 1956.
Many authors. Holy Bible (edition in accordance with the ancient sources, and the decree of the Second Vatican Council). Wichita: Fireside Bible Publishers, 1995-6 ed.
Mamy, Sylvie. Les Grands Castrats Napolitains - Venise au XVIIIème Siécle. Liége: Mardarga, 1994.
Matthews, Thomas. The Splendid art: A History of the Opera. London: Crowell-Collier Press, 1970.
Somerset-Ward, Richard. The Story of Opera. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Ltd., 1998.

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